Application of Sensory for the Maintenance of Health for the Elderly

Question: Write a Literature Review of "The application of Sensory for the Maintenance of Health for the Elderly. Answer: Introduction Disorders of smell and taste are often diagnostic dilemmas that most times present themselves in elderly people(Croy, Nordin, Hummel, 2014). The lack of knowledge and insight of these impairment conditions are common and can result in life threatening situations especially among the aged. In addition, poor appetite is a challenge faced by elderly people living both at home or in nursing care homes. Poor appetite can result in nutritional deficiencies and weight loss and is linked to poor health outcomes and mortality. By gaining an understanding on what causes reduced appetite and its link to sensory impairment, clinical staff and nurses can quickly identify elderly patients that have an impaired appetite. Several strategies can be utilized in promoting appetite and increasing intake of food (Pilgrim, Robinson, Save, 2015). The role of senses in food intake When the human tongue receives taste signals, a number of neural pathways are activated. However, these pathways don't require for food to be in the mouth for them to be activated; the sound of rattling dishes, or an image of food can cause the stomach to rumble. The sense of vision provides a critical sense with regard to food perception, driving preferences and raising expectations. Humans discriminate unconsciously, between foods that are low and high in calories, by just looking at the said food. Looking at images of food that are low or high calorie provokes different responses with varying intensities in the brain(Toepel, Ohla, Hudry, 2014). The study by Toepel et al.,( 2104) tested subjects where they were shown images of high calorie foods such as pastry, pizza, salmon, and lamb chops which were alternated with images of low calorie foods such as pasta/tomato sauce, yoghurt, watermelon, and beans. For every image observed, a weak electric current was attached to the tongues of the participants which stimulated the state function of the brain without any real taste being mimicked. This produced a metallic taste and sensation hence, the a food cue was initiated by the images and neutralized by the metallic stimulation. The results from the EEG measurements showed that looking at high calorie images stimulated pleasant and strong sensations as opposed to the low calorie food images. The high calorie images evoked neural activity which was stronger in some parts of the brain such as frontal operculum and the bilateral insula in comparison to images of lower calories. Any taste pleasantness changes activated the medial orbitofrontal cortex. Shape also affects taste as was studied by Gal in a research that analyzed consumer behaviour against marketing. In the study, the participants first sorted geometric figures after which they were shown a piece of cheese that had pointed corners rather than the usual round ones. The subjects described the taste of the cheese as being sharper (Bakalar, 2014). However, understanding the brain's mechanism that connects between gustatory and visual senses is still a relatively new In addition to visual and shape, odour too plays a significant role. Volatile molecules are released when a person chews food which then travel to the receptors at the back of the mouth that lines the nasal passages. The receptors are what enable a person to identify the different sensations' combinations which result in flavour- knowing what one is consuming. When a person eats sour or sweet strawberry, the mouth is able to detect this even while the nose is held tight (Stevenson, 2012). Hearing too plays a part in what people eat. If for example one hears the crunch of potato crisps, one imagines the crisps to be fresher. Taste can also be affected by sound as was demonstrate by a study where participants were asked to bite into crisps and rate their freshness and crispiness. The researcher played a crunching sound once the subject took a bite and which systematically changed the perceptions by the subjects where the subjects stated the crisps were crispier and fresher compared to when there was no aural cue (Spence,2015). Temperature also is a factor that determines one's perception of taste. For example, warming ice cream increases the perceived flavour. Sensitivity to temperature is regulated by the taste buds' molecular processes that are responsible for the different tastes (Amerine, Pangborn, Roessler, 2013). Increasing food temperature to 15-35 degrees Celsius enhances one's sweetness neural response. In approximately half of the population, cooling or heating the tongue causes taste sensations in that, cooling the tongue increases the salty or sour tasting sensations while increasing the temperature increases the taste sensation of sweetness. Taste and Smell receptors Smell when compared against taste, is more complex as human receptors for taste are fewer than receptors for smell. The five taste receptors are umami, bitter, salty, sour, and sweet. There are various ways of mixing both smell and taste leading to a broad array of flavours that a person perceives and which bear little subjective resemblance to the aforementioned tastes. There is a neurological link between taste and smell that is unique to the two senses. When one sees and hears something simultaneously, two different neurological pathways are used while this is not the case with tasting and smelling. For example, when one pops a jellybean in the mouth while holding the nose tight, one can still sense the jelly beans' sweetness but will not perceive the flavour. Once a person releases the nose, the flavour becomes identifiable. The flavour thus comes from the nose even when one tastes the sweetness of the beans (Society for Neuroscience, 2015). There is a distinction between smelling via the nose and via the back of the throat, while there is a neurological distinction in the tasting. Arrival of the retronasal and orthonasal odours is via the same route however, when they arrive simultaneously as taste, integration of taste and odour occurs which creates the perception of flavour. Flavour is only perceived through the simultaneous arrival of odour and taste to the anterior insula. Hence, it is concluded that the overlapping of the distinct smell and taste pathways occurs in the anterior insula. When molecules bind in the tongue receptors, then the sense of taste can be perceived which proceeds to send signals to various parts of the brain to eventually meet at the anterior insula (Yin, Hewson, Linforth et al., 2017). Further, a person is able to differentiate the experience with food through touching the food. This is more so, with regard to true fats (an example is the creamy taste of ice-cream and butter). There are specific neurons in the brain's orbitofrontal cortex that respond to fats texture in the mouth such as fat rich foods including chocolate and ice cream as well as similarly oily non food substances such as silicone oil and mineral oil. In addition, the taste of soda is influenced greatly by feel where a flat soda tastes different from a carbonated one (Drewnoski Almiron, 2010). Appetite and Diet in old age The proportion of elderly is escalating fast in the world. It is estimated that by 2025, there wil be 1.12 billion people aged 60 and above with most having some level of sensory loss including smell and taste perception (Coreira, Lopez, Wroblewsski et al., 2016). Laboratory and clinical studies have shown a decline in smell and taste functioning among persons aged 60 years and above which increases in severity in those aged 70 years and above. Dysfunction of smell and taste is caused by ageing and some specific disease conditions such as Alzheimer's and cancer, surgical and pharmacological intervention, environmental and radiation exposure. The chemosensory deficits may result in alteration in food choices and consumption and subsequently worsen any existing medical conditions, compromise immunity and nutritional status, change food choices and result in decrease in weight (Doty Kamath, 2014). As has been discussed earlier, vision, smell, and taste are involved in food enjoyment. When these senses are impaired due to ageing, they result in a reduction in appetite among the elderly. Appetite is stimulated by the smell of food while the taste of food promotes its enjoyment and stimulates the appetite further even after eating. Most elderly people have taste and smell senses that are impaired and which hinders their appetite to a great extent (Nieuwenhuizen et al., 2010). Having a good vision helps in stimulating one's appetite (Spence, Okajima, Cheok et al., 2015). As one ages, the vision reduces with 1 in 5 persons aged 75 years and above and 1 in every 2 persons aged 90 years and above having loss of vision (RNIB, 2014). The body composition of an individual is what determines his/her energy requirements and more so, the fat free mass (the component s of the body that are exclusive of fat for example organs, bones, and muscles), and their physical activity levels. As people age, they lose the fat free mass with a 1% rate of skeletal muscle loss among those aged 70 years and above. With most being physically inactive. Therefore the energy requirements among the elderly are low which is a contributory factor to appetite loss. This varies among individuals, which is reflective of the body composition differences as well as physical activity differences (Milanovi?, Panteli?, Trajkovi? et al., 2013). As people become older, the sense of smell deteriorates with declining olfactory functioning (Doty Kamath, 2014;Smoliner, Fischedick, Sieber et al., 2013).In addition to losing the sense of smell, people lose the ability to differentiate smells with more than 75% of persons aged 80 and above experiencing acute olfactory impairment with increased continuous decline after 70 years (Doty et al., 2014). Of persons aged between 80-97 years, 62.5% had olfactory impairment(Schubert, Cruickshanks, Klein et al., 2011). However, taste impairment is more common than olfactory impairment (Malaty Malty, 2013) Gustatory dysfunction is also linked to ageing, however, most often, what is thought to be taste impairment is in fact an olfactory impairment. Besides smell impairment, taste impairment is caused by prior infection of upper respiratory area, drug use, head injury, as well as idiopathic causes (Fomazieri, Borges, Bezerra, et al., 2014; Bromley Doty, 2014; Roper, 2013).Problems with chewing caused by loss of teeth and dentures can interfere with sense of taste along with decreased production of saliva. Decreased senses of tastes and smell causes suppression of appetite which results in loss of weight, impaired immunity, malnutrition, and medical conditions deteriorations (Phillips, Caroll, Drayson et al., 2015; Jacobson, Green, Murphy,2010).Problems with nutrition form a significant sequeale from disorders of taste and smell.Elderly persons need two-three times more salt concentration in tomato soup before they are able to detect it (Ahmed Haboubi, 2010).The tendency for the elderly to take in higher concentrations of sugar and salt can exacerbate already hazardous medical conditions they may be experiencing. A decrease or distortion in the sense of smell results in a decrease in life quality or even disability(Smeets, Veldhuizen, Galle, 2009). Further, such medical conditions can result in a high level of depression and anxiety in the person. Anxiety resulting from inability to enjoy the taste of food and fear that the taste impairment could be as a result of an unknown condit ion. In addition, there is also heightened depression among persons with anosmia (Hummel, T., Landis, B. N., Httenbrink,, 2011). Chemosensory Dysfunctions Classification of chemosensory dysfunction is as follows: ageusia (loss in sense of taste), hypogeusia (decrease in taste sensitivity), dysgeusia (normal taste distortion), anosmia (loss in of the sense of smell), hyposmia (decrease in smell sensitivity) and dysomia (normal smell distortion). Persons with hypogeusia often need tastants in higher concentrations in order to detect the same; their threshold for detecting and recognizing tastants is elevated above the normal controls. These group of persons also have less intense suprathreshold concentrations. Persons with dysgeusi experience taste distortion such as metallic/bitter taste sides that are not often linked to the foods they are consuming. Analogous impairments in perceptions of smell are often reported in persons with dysosmia and hyposmia. Chemosensory deficits compensation methods The chemosensory deficits that the elderly experience are irreversible. However, there are several sensory interventions that can be applied such as odour and taste intensification to compensate for perceptual loss that is age related. One such method is addition of monosodium glutamate (MSG) in food during and after its preparation to enhance its taste and smell as well as enhance its palatability. Taste and smell disorders management When a person presents with taste and smell disorders, they will first need reassurance and counselling that they are not suffering from an infection or malignant disease. Once diagnosis of diminished smell is done, the management goal will entail injury prevention that is related to the condition. Gas detection visual stimulating devices are ideal for a person that use gas stoves as such a person will be incapable of smelling a gas leak. Neighbours and relatives will need to be involved in assisting such a person as he/she may be unable to detect spoiled food which can cause food poisoning if consumed. MSG MSG is the glutamic acid sodium salt that poses the unique umami taste quality. The term umami is Japanese with no English translation , and is used for describing the MSG taste as well as the taste of certain broths and fish. The umami taste is similar to the protein taste. Different tests have shown that umami does not fall in any of the categories of bitter, salty, sour, and sweet. MSG is used in making commercial mixtures that contain specific 5-ribonucleotides such as IMP (inosine-5-monophosphate) and GMP (guanosine-5-monophosphate). MSG together with these compounds have synergistic and potent effects, including a significant decrease in the threshold levels of MSG. Flavours A person with a taste disorder will need flavoring enhancements added to his/her food. Flavors are a combination of odorant molecules which are blended or extracted from natural product or can be synthesized from natural products through mass spectrographic and chromatographic analysis. Flavor enhancers modify or enhance the food's original aroma or taste but lack their individual aroma or taste. For example, simulated beef flavour can be used as an addition to beef or beef soup to increase the beef sensation. There is a difference in flavour enhancement from the more common taste and odour sensation enhancers such as salt, herbs, and spices. Herbs and spices add diverse flavours as opposed to intensifying the food's existing chemosensory properties. Flavours are not spices hence they do not cause any stomach or mouth irritations. The main component in flavour enhancements is salt but also, MSG is used often. Flavour enhancement added in food for the sick and elderly can improve the palatability of food and also its acceptance, slow or reverse decline in functionality, increase counts of lymphocytes, and improve the overall quality of life. It also potentially makes up for anorexia (Islam, Fagundo, Arcelus, 2015).One study revealed that enhancement of flavour for the elderly living in a retirement home resulted in an enhanced immune status as witnessed in levels of B and T cell counts and also an improved strength in grip (Islam et al., 2015). In addition, odour and taste stimulation among the elderly has been shown to improve with an increased salivary IgA rate (Philips et al., 2015) Conclusion Several factors contribute to impaired appetite among the elderly and these are often linked to the psychological and physical alterations that come with ageing. Poor appetite is significant as it increases the likelihood of a person becoming nutritionally deficient and even losing weight. Weight loss is particularly difficult to regain in elderly patients and along with nutritional deficiency, they are both associated with mortality and poor health outcomes. The nurse is in a position to quickly identify patients that have impaired appetite and can commence on interventions to help the elderly patients to enhance their appetite and increase food intake by utilizing different strategies as discussed in this paper. These strategies include flavoring food with sauces, spices, and herbs, improving the ambience of food, ensuring the patient has company while eating, serving meals that the patient has shown preference for and during regular times when the patient eats. Amplification of fo od taste and flavor using MSG can improve the palatability of the food and its acceptance as well. It can also increase the immunity and salivary flow in a patient as well as minimize oral complaints among the elderly and the sick. Flavor molecules compensate for losses in chemosensory abilities by interacting with receptors in the mouth. MSG adds taste without enhancing other tastes. It may also be helpful to increase the patient's physical activity. Finally, the use of oral nutritional supplements may be necessitated in supporting elderly patients with acute illness and who have very low appetite. References Ahmed, T., Haboubi, N. (2010). Assessment and management of nutrition in older people and its importance to health.Clinical Interventions in Aging,5, 207216. Amerine, M. A., Pangborn, R. M., Roessler, E. B. (2013).Principles of sensory evaluation of food. Elsevier. Bakalar, N. (2012). Sensory science: partners in flavour.Nature,486(7403), S4-S5. Bromley, S.M. Doty, R.L. (2014)Clinical disorders affecting taste: an update. Chapter 39 in R.L. Doty (Ed),Handbook of Olfaction and Gustation(3rd Edition). New York: Wiley-Liss, 2014, in press. Correia, C., Lopez, K. J., Wroblewski, K. E., Huisingh?Scheetz, M., Kern, D. W., Chen, R. C., ... Pinto, J. M. (2016). Global sensory impairment in older adults in the United States.Journal of the American Geriatrics Society,64(2), 306-313. Croy, I., Nordin, S., Hummel, T. (2014). Olfactory disorders and quality of lifean updated review.Chemical senses,39(3), 185-194. Doty, R. L., Kamath, V. (2014). The influences of age on olfaction: a review.Applied Olfactory Cognition,5, 213-232. Drewnowski A, Almiron-Roig E.(2010) Human Perceptions and Preferences for Fat-Rich Foods. In: Montmayeur JP, le Coutre J, editors. Fat Detection: Taste, Texture, and Post Ingestive Effects. Boca Raton (FL): CRC Press/Taylor Francis; 2010. Chapter 11.Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK53528/ Fornazieri, M. A., Borges, B. B. P., Bezerra, T. F. P., de Rezende Pinna, F., Voegels, R. L. (2014). Main causes and diagnostic evaluation in patients with primary complaint of olfactory disturbances.Brazilian journal of otorhinolaryngology,80(3), 202-207. Hummel, T., Landis, B. N., Httenbrink, K.-B. (2011). Smell and taste disorders.GMS Current Topics in Otorhinolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery,10, Doc04. https://doi.org/10.3205/cto000077 Islam, M. A., Fagundo, A. B., Arcelus, J., Agera, Z., Jimnez-Murcia, S., Fernndez-Real, J. M., Fernandez-Aranda, F. (2015). Olfaction in eating disorders and abnormal eating behavior: a systematic review.Frontiers in Psychology,6, 1431. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01431 Jacobson, A., Green, E., Murphy, C. (2010). Age-Related Functional Changes in Gustatory and Reward Processing Regions: An fMRI Study.NeuroImage,53(2), 602610. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2010.05.012 Malaty, J., Malaty, I. A. (2013). Smell and taste disorders in primary care.Am Fam Physician,88(12), 852-859. Milanovi?, Z., Panteli?, S., Trajkovi?, N., Spori, G., Kosti?, R., James, N. (2013). Age-related decrease in physical activity and functional fitness among elderly men and women.Clinical Interventions in Aging,8, 549556. https://doi.org/10.2147/CIA.S44112 Nieuwenhuizen W, Weenen H, Rigby P, et al. (2010). Older adults and patients in need of nutritional support: review of current treatment options and factors influencing nutritional intake.Clinical Nutrition.29:160169. Phillips, A. C., Carroll, D., Drayson, M. T., Der, G. (2015). Salivary immunoglobulin a secretion rate is negatively associated with cancer mortality: The West of Scotland Twenty-07 Study.PloS one,10(12), e0145083. Pilgrim, A., Robinson, S., Sayer, A. A., Roberts, H. (2015). An overview of appetite decline in older people.Nursing Older People,27(5), 2935. https://doi.org/10.7748/nop.27.5.29.e697 RNIB (2014). Key Information and Statistics.(Retrieved on 7th May, 2017). 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People with strong collectivist or individualist culture are all dependent u pon their normative culture norm which is determinant of how team function and development are being undertaking. Introduction This essay discusses whether it is true that people working in teams always achieve their goals more efficiently and effectively than people working alone and examines what similarities and differences are existent between people working in teams and people who working individually. This report builds several themes. It first of all defines what is meant by between people working in teams and people working alone. Secondly, it analyses the main issues discussed in the existing literature regarding goal setting, goal generation and goal striving at both team and individual level. Thirdly, it brings some arguments to demonstrate that teams tend to perform better and effectively rather than individuals do in terms of shared collaborative thinking, knowledge and skills, better decisions making and higher level of motivation. Fourthly, several possible failures of being involved in teamwork are also delineated. Subsequently, particular theories of team development apply across different c ultures are addressed. In addition, practical successful examples relating to team development from University experience is given. Finally, several important points addressed in the foregoing discussion are overall reminded in the implication section. Key findings from the literature Define team and people working alone Generally, team is defined as a distinguishable people who interact, dynamically, interdependently, and adaptively toward a common purpose and a set of valued goals or objectives, who hold themselves mutually accountable, and who have a limited life-span of membership (Salas, Dickinson, Converse and Tannenbaum 1992). That definition explicitly stands on the discipline that teams must share to be effective and efficient. On the contrary, people who prefer to work individually exert individual efforts toward personal valued goals and outcomes. Individuals are merely willing to work hard on their own task to the degree that they expect their efforts to be instrumental in obtaining outcomes that they value personally. Goal setting, Goal generation and Goal striving There is a body of research on the theories of team and individual motivation, their goal generation and their goal striving processes as well as their interrelations (Locke and Latham 1990). At a team level, team members generate common goals through consensus agreement and then take collective and coordinated actions towards accomplishing their goals. Team goal generation and goal striving involves a series of processes of analysis of the teams mission, specifying and prioritizing goals, and formulating plans for accomplishing team goals (Chen and Kanfer 2006). Similarly, individuals also establish a bundle of goals and designate subordinate task and plans which are perceived to be necessary for goal accomplishment. Even though individuals go through individual level goal generation, striving, they work on all these processes by themselves without others assistance and support. Nevertheless, team and individual goal accomplishment could be far more different. All processes in team goal generation, striving and accomplishment are built on shared or common interactions among team members. Most scholars only support teamwork that goal generation and goal striving can be meaningful when team members come to consensus with shared belief and effective team dynamics and coordinate their collective effort towards accomplishing common goals. Teams are more effective than individuals acting alone in terms of shared collective thinking, knowledge and skills, shared responsibility, better decisions making, higher level of motivation and having a leader. Shared collective thinking, knowledge and skills An adequate pooling of collaborative thinking, knowledge and skills from a number of people are the key elements of building an effective teamwork. Effective collaborative thinking and knowledge with various skills in different specific fields are collectively collected transforming into effective team understanding and decision making. Teams are particularly good at combining talents and providing innovative solutions to possibly unfamiliar problems. Compared with people who prefer working alone, they have limited ideas, knowledge and skills to accomplish a task. Hence, the wider knowledge and skills set of the team has a distinct advantage over that of the individuals since the individual level of understanding, problem solving and decision making are of lower quality. Better decisions making Teams are always deemed that they can make better decisions than individuals and team decision making has long been lauded as a vehicle for increasing participation, perceptions of fairness, and acceptance of decision outcomes (Brodbeck et al. 2007). Keyton and Beck (2008) argue that effective teams tend to produce evaluation of decisions which is often favored over analysis of the interaction so they are ones that make the best, correct and right decision according to some objectified standard. However, there is a possibility of individuals having some biased minds or subjective perspective to make decisions without sharing ideas with others. Those people do not have clear mind to identify, explore, and modify their value use to set goals and that influences goal accomplishment. Higher level of motivation Effective teams have higher motivation and performance levels than individual acting alone because of the effect of social facilitation. That is people are more energized and active when they are around other people (Carlopio and Andrewarthur 2008). The team process leads to a spirit of coordination, cooperation and commonly shared belief and value. Team members hold the spirit to help each other to be efficient working together. Their desired performance and outcomes are enhanced by their mutual support. With respect of individual motivation, each individual needs to adequately manage his or her own emotional equilibrium and affective reactions so as to perform appropriately. Individual obstacles to the attainment of goals that cannot be overcome through greater allocations of effort may in turn affect affective emotions; instigate revision and abandonment of broad goals. Therefore, it is not easy for individuals to motivate themselves to continue endeavoring toward accomplishing th e same desired goal when faced with obstacles. In addition, the big difference between people working in team and people working alone is that there is always a team leader who is responsible for guiding, directing and supervising team members actual effort to work in team. Team goal striving are then reinforced by the team leader. Several possible failures of working in team Nevertheless, teams are not panaceas that do not have flaws and mistakes are common in team building and development. In Hackman studies of team, he finds that not providing team members in autonomy, taking advantages of team to make all decisions instead of neglecting individuals make decisions when appropriate, recognizing and rewarding individuals instead of team, not boosting independence among team members, failing to be familiar with members and allocate member roles, not providing needed resources for the team are all common mistakes. Interdependence and interaction are key elements in teams. More team members involved in a team may inevitably encounter irreconcilable conflicts which lead to poor team performance. Poor communication, lack of trust, team commitment and team alignment, lack of collaboration and cooperation are major factors that violate some basic principles of team development. They are likely to generate and create confusion and frustration for team members, a nd that make them difficulty to exert collaborative effort to reach the desired goals and outcomes. How different cultures influence team development One of the most important influences on group effectiveness is culture norms represented in the team. Different cultures have different orientations toward what is appropriate in terms of team function and development (Thomas et al 1996). Individuals with different cultures are likely to have very different standpoints of how the team should go about the task, how they should interact with other team members, how member should behave in such a way to achieve the team goals. Many literature reviews focus on the distinction between individualism and collectivism introduced into cultural studies by Hofstede (1980). Individualism is regarded as the tendency to treat the self as the most significant social unit in contrast to collectivism is deemed as the tendency to treat the group to which one belongs, such as the family or work team, as the most significant social unit (Boreham 2004). United Stated is a typical example of an individualistic culture embedded with the self and equality. This culture is characterized by team patterns of behaviors that emphasize equality in resource sharing according to contribution and distribution of resources equally among members (Fiske 1990). Japan is rooted by collectivistic culture and characterized by team patterns of relationships that emphasize communal resource sharing and sacrifice for the team feature prominently (Thomas 2008). Hence, cultures with individualism and collectivism differ in ways in which they designate how their team functions toward achieving their team goals by using their normative belief. Practical examples Through several years of University life, I have gained a great deal of experience of working in teams. It is convincing to make me believe that working in teams is much better than working individually since the level of effectiveness and efficiency of performance were higher and goal achievement is much possible. One of my experiences on working in team, I was extremely satisfied with the entire team development and the outcome we strived toward in the end. We did successfully go through all the basic stages of team development which were forming, storming, confronting and performance. In the forming stage, we oriented all team members, established a clear team purpose, and elected a team leader who had the talent of leadership skills. In the storming stage, we clarified each members role by examining members weaknesses and strengths, established groupthink, and managed conflict. In confrontation stage, we provided feedback, motivated each other and maintained team cohesion. Finall y, we fostered continuous improvement and innovation encouraged introspection. Another experience was working on a big project by myself. A sense of frustration and helplessness were gained at the very start and until the end. There were no others assistance and support, no incentives to achieve the goals that I set, no feedback given to see if the project has been undergone in an appropriate way. As a consequence, performance was affected by my sense of frustration and an average mark for the project was given. Implications For the foregoing discussion, the similarity and differences are existent between people working in teams and people working individually have been examined above. Basically teams usually have goal setting, goal generation and goal striving as well as individuals. The attainment of the goal requires collaboration among members whereas individuals need to set and plan to achieve them by themselves. However, collective and collaborative effort may not be congruent with individual effort. More possibly, the former one works better than the latter one in terms of its goal accomplishment. Additionally, having shared collaborative thinking, more pool of knowledge and skills, better decisions making and higher level of motivation in teams may have an advantage over individuals who prefer working alone. Furthermore, culture is also vital element in determining how teams develop from the start to the end. People with a culture high in collectivism tend to work in teams toward a common and con sensus goal whereas people with a culture high in individualism stand for working alone toward his or her own goals. Conclusion To sum up, this essay has discussed whether people working in teams always achieve their goals more efficiently and effectively than people working alone. A comparative analysis on goal setting, goal generation and goal striving at team level and individual level has been delineated. Subsequently, the essay has explored some factors of why teams performing better and effectively rather than individuals do by using some examples of shared collaborative thinking, knowledge and skills, decision making and level of motivation. However, it has also pointed out that common mistakes always take place in teams so as to prove teams have flaws at times. Moreover, the essay has also explained that different cultural normative beliefs influence team function and development significantly. People tend to prefer working in teams or working individually depends upon whether they are rooted in collectivistic or individualistic culture.

Jose Rizal in UST Essay

Fortunately, Rizal’s first romance, with its bitter disillusionment, did not adversely affect his studies in the University of Santo Tomas. His love for higher education proved to be greater than his love for a pretty girl. After finishing the first year of the course in Philosophy and Letters (1877-780), he transferred to a medical course. During the year of his studies in the university, which was under the Dominicans, rival education of the Jusuits, he remained loyal to Ateneo, where he continued to participate in extra curricular activities and where he completed the education course in surveying. As a Thomasian, he won more literary laurels, had more romances with girls, and fought against Spanish students. Mother’s position to higher education. After graduation with the highest position in Ateneo, Rizal had to go the University of Santo Tomas in order to prepare himself to a private career. The Bachelor of Arts degree during Spanish times was equivalent to a high school diploma today. It merely qualified its holder to enter a university. Both Don Francisco and Paciano that Jose should pursue a higher learning. But Dona Teodora did not want him to study more. Evidently she had a premonition that to much knowledge would imperil his child life. In a family council in the Rizal’s home in Calamba, she vigorously objected to have her beloved Jose acquired a higher education. She was thinking of the safety of her son. She know the fate of Filipino intellectuals-Father Burgos, Dr. Antonio Ma. Regidor,Jose Ma. Basa, and others of 1872-who were either executed or exiled by the Spanish authorities, and blamed their sad fate to their learning. Fearful of the Spanish authorities who seem to frown on those Filipinos who learn to much, she warned her husband. â€Å"Do not send Jose again to Manila. If gets to know to much, they will cut off his head!† Jose, who was present in their family council when his mother said this, was shocked. He know her mother was a woman o education and culture: she even taught him and inspired him to write poetry; she came from a family of high learning – her own brother ( and his uncle)Jose Alberto Alonso had been educated abroad and could speak multiple Spanish, French, English and German. Rizal enters the university. In April 1877, Rizal, who was bearly16 years old, matriculated in the University of Santo Tomas taking up Philosophy and Letters. He enrolled in this course for two reasons: (1) his father like it and (2) he was â€Å"still uncertain to what career to follow†. He had written to father Pablo Ramon, Rector of the Ateneo, who had been good to him during his days in Ateneo, asking for advice in the choice of career. Unfortunately, Father Recto was in Mindanao and during those days it several months to travel a letter from Manila to Mindanao. Consequently during his first term (1877-78) in the University of Santo Tomas he studied Cosmology, Metaphysics, Theodicy and History of Philosophy. It was during the school term (1978-79) that Rizal took up medicine, enrolling simultaneously in preparatory medical course and the regular first year medical course. Reasons Why Rizal Hate UST 1. Filipino Students are racially discriminated 2. Dominican Friars are hostile to him 3. The method of teachings were obsolete and repressive Reasons Why Rizal Took Up Philosophy & Letters 1. He is not certain as to what course to take 2. His father like it Reason For Taking Medical Studies 1. It is the advice of the Rector of Ateneo, whom he consulted for a choice of career, finally answered his letter, and recommended medicine. 2. He wanted to be a physician so that he may cure his mother’s failing eyesight. Rizal’s Love Affairs in UST Leonor â€Å"Orang† Valenzuela Leonor Valenzuela the fourth girlfriend of Rizal. Several months after during Rizal sophomore year at the University of Santo Tomas, he boarded in the house of Doà ±a Concha Leyva in Intramuros. The next door neighbors of Doà ±a Concha were Capitan Juan and Capitana Sanday Valenzuela, parents of a charming girl named Leonor. Rizal a medical student from Calamba was a  welcomed visitor in the Valenzuela home, where he was the life of the social parties because of his clever sleight of hand tricks. He courted Leonor Valenzuela, who was a tall girl. Almost as tall as Jose himself, and had a regal bearing. He sent her love notes written in invisible ink. This ink consisted of common table salt and water. It left no trace on the paper. Rizal, who knew his chemistry, taught Orang (pet name of Leonor Valenzuela) the secret of reading any note written in the invisible ink by heating it over a candle or lamp so that the letter may appear. But as with Segunda, he stopped short of proposing marriage to Orang. Romances with other girls After Segunda Katigbak he courted a certain â€Å"Miss L†. After a few visit he stopped wooing her. After Miss L he courted Leonor Valenzuela (Orang) but stop short of proposing marriage. Rizal’s next romance was with his cousin Leonor Rivera. Between Jose and Leonor spranga beautiful romance and became engage. In 1879, the Liceo Artistico – Literario (Artistic Literarylyceum) of Manila held literary contest it offered a prize for the best poem by a native or a mestizo. Rizal submitted his poem â€Å"A La Juventud Filipina†. (ToThe Youth Filipino).The board of judges was impressed of Rizal poem and gave it the first prize consisted of a silver pen, feathered shaped and decorated with a gold ribbon. The inspiring poem beseeched the Filipino youth to rise from the laziness. Finishes Surveying course in Ateneo (1878) During his term in University of Santo Tomas (1877 – 78, Rizal also studied in Ateneo, he took the vocational course leading to a title of porito agrimensor (expert surveyor)). In those days it should be remembered, the college for boys in Manila offered vocational courses in agriculture, commerce, mechanics and surveying. Rizal’s unhappy days at UST. Rizal’s Ateneo boy wonder, found the atmosphere at the UST a suffocating to his sensitive spirit. He was unhappy of this Dominican Institution of high learning because (1) the Dominican processors were hostile to him, (2) the Filipino students were racially discriminated, and (3) the method of teachings were obsolete and repressive. Decision to study abroad After finishing the fourth year of his medical course, Rizal decided to study  in Spain. He could no longer endure the rampant bigotry, discrimination, and hostility in UST. His uncle, Antonio Rivera, Leonor’s father, encourage him to go abroad. Both Paciano and Saturnina, whom he contacted secretly, were of similar opinion. For the first time, Rizal did not seek his parent’s decision and blessing to go abroad, because he knew that they, especially his mother will disapprove his plan. He did not also bring his beloved Leonor in his confidence. He had enough common sense to know that Leonor, being a woman, and young and romantic at that, could not keep a secret. Thus, Rizal’s parent, Leonor, and the Spanish authorities knew nothing of his decision to go abroad in order to finish his medical studies in Spain, where the professors were more tolerant and understanding than those of the University of Santo Tomas. In 1880, the artistic literary lyceum opened another literary contest to commemorate the fourth centennial of the death of Cervantesand was opened to both Filipinos and Spaniards. Many writers participated including Rizal who submitted an allegorical drama entitled†El Consejo de losDioses† (The council of the Gods). Rizal won and for the first time, an indio defeated several Spanish writer. Other Rizal literary work as an Thomasian: â€Å"Junto al Pasig â€Å", â€Å"Abd-el-Azis y mahoma†, â€Å"Al M.R.P. Pablo Ramon†. Rizal was the champion of the Filipino students in their frequent fight against Spanish students. In 1880, Filipino students in UST Founded â€Å"Compaà ±erismo â€Å"and Rizal was the chief of his secret society and led various street fight.. After finishing the fourth year of his medical course, Rizal decided to study in Spain. He did not seek his parent’s permission. Thus Rizal’s parents, Leonor, and the Spanish authoriti es knew nothing of his decision to go abroad in order to finish his medical studies in Spain.